The Schools of Psychology Have been developed throughout the history of psychology. As stated by Hermann Ebbinghaus, one of the most important thinkers in the field of human behavior,"psychology has an extensive past but a short history." With these words, Ebbinghaus captures the essence of development in this field.
All schools of psychology have been influential in their own way; However, most psychologists maintain eclectic views that combine aspects of each of the streams. Next, we will describe the major schools that have been most influential in the history of psychology.
Main Schools of Psychology
Structuralism
The ideas of Wilhelm Wundt , The German psychologist who opened the First experimental laboratory of psychology In 1879, laid the foundation of the first school of thought in psychology, known as structuralism. In fact, he was one of Wundt's students, Titchener , Who formally established this school. Structuralism, as the name suggests, focused on investigating the structure of the mind.
Wundt believed that psychology should focus on dividing consciousness into its basic elements, just as a child decomposes a toy to reveal the parts that compose it.
The idea of determining the specific structure of something as abstract and dynamic as the mind may seem absurd to many today. However, the structuralists were sure that they could not only accomplish this goal, but could do so in a scientific way.
Wundt advanced the technique of introspection as a"scientific"tool that would allow researchers to reveal the structure of the mind. Introspection implies looking inside: analyze and try to give meaning to our own internal experiences as they occur.
In employing this technique, various forms of stimuli were presented to trained subjects and asked to describe as clearly and objectively as possible what they experienced at that time.
The reports were later examined to determine the basic elements of consciousness. For example, if you are presented with a piece of cake, it would not be enough to simply identify the type of food in front of you. It would also be necessary to explain the basic elements of the cake that are identifiable through the senses.
For example, the taste, smell, texture, color and shape of the cake could be described in as many details as possible.
Structuralism played a very important role in shaping the field of psychology during the years in which it was developing. Wundt and his followers helped establish psychology as an independent experimental science and its emphasis on the scientific method of inquiry remains a key aspect of the discipline today.
However, the structuralists could not escape criticism of their theories. Despite his noble attempts at scientific research, introspection was not ideal for this purpose, since no two people perceive the same in the exact same way. The reports of the subjects, in this way, tended to be subjective and conflicting.
Some of the more aggressive criticisms of structuralism came from William James , One of the psychologists who proposed the functionalist perspective of psychology.
Functionalism
From the point of view of the American academic William James, the structuralists were deeply mistaken. The mind is flexible, not stable; Consciousness is continuous, not static. Attempts to study the structure of the mind in this way are useless and frustrating.
According to William James, it was more useful to study function than to study the structure of mind. The function, in this sense, can mean two things: how the mind works or how mental processes promote adaptation.
Clearly influenced by Charles Darwin and the Principle of natural selection , James believed that mental processes had vital functions that allowed us to adapt and survive in a changing world.
Therefore, while structuralists asked"what happens"when we develop mental activities, the functionalists questioned more the way these processes occur and why.
Functionalism contributed a great deal to the development of psychology. He extended the subject of psychology and the variety of methods used to get data. For example, the emphasis placed by the functionalists on adaptation made them promote the study of learning, since it is believed that improves our adaptability and possibilities of survival.
Their interest in the occurrence of some mental processes also led to extensive motivation . Functionalists also hold the credit for having brought the study with animals, children and abnormal behavior within psychology, as well as the emphasis on individual differences.
Moreover, while the structuralists established psychology as a pure science, the functionalists extended this limited focus by focusing also on the practical applications of psychology to real-world problems.
In terms of research methods, the functionalists expanded the existing repertoire using tests, questionnaires and physiological measures, in addition to introspection.
However, the functionalists also had their shortcomings. Like the structuralists, they relied too much on the technique of introspection, with all the disadvantages previously mentioned, and were criticized for providing a vague definition of the term"function."
Neither structuralism nor functionalism remained at the forefront of psychology for a long time. Both made significant contributions to psychology, but neglected a very important influence on human thought and behavior: the unconscious. This is where Sigmund Freud Made his big debut.
Psychoanalysis
By mentioning the word psychology, almost everyone comes to mind Sigmund Freud . Like the structuralists and functionalists before him, Freud was interested in studying covert behavior, but contrary to his predecessors, Freud was not satisfied with just examining conscious thought and began to study the unconscious as well.
Freud compared the Human psyche With an iceberg: only a small part is visible to others; Most are below the surface. Freud also thought that many of the factors that influence our thoughts and actions are out of consciousness and operate completely in our unconscious.
Psychology, therefore, needed to study these impulses and unconscious motives to arrive at a more complete understanding of the individual.
Not all modern psychologists support the Freud's psychoanalytic theory , But none can deny the impact this man had on psychology.
He opened new frontiers in this area and proposed one of the most complete theories of personality ever written, supplemented by explanations of how the unconscious mind works and how the personality develops in the early years of life.
Many later theorists were influenced directly or indirectly by Freud, as they constructed, modified, or reacted to their sometimes controversial points of view. Freud's work gave rise to the development of the first form of psychotherapy, which has been modified and used by countless therapists during the history of psychology.
All this, using Freud's analogy, is only the"tip of the iceberg"as to the importance of their contributions.
No other school of psychology has received as much attention, admiration, and criticism as Freud's psychoanalytic theory. One of the most popular criticisms questions the fact that Freud's theories lack empirical support, since their concepts could not be scientifically ascertained.
Freud also did not provide information about how post-childhood experiences contribute to personality development. In addition, he focused mainly on psychological disorders rather than on more positive and adaptive behaviors.
Behaviorism
Skinner Box
Despite their differences, structuralism, functionalism, and psychoanalysis all had an emphasis on mental processes: events that can not be perceived with the naked eye.
John B. Watson , The father of behaviorism, strongly opposed this approach and began a revolution in psychology. Watson was a champion of scientific scrutiny, but for him, covert behavior, including mental processes, could not be studied scientifically.
The emphasis, from this perspective, should be centered only on observable behavior. Behaviorists believed that human behavior could be understood by examining the relationship between stimuli (events occurring in the environment) and responses (observable behaviors).
Behaviorists saw no need to use subjective techniques such as introspection to infer mental processes. What had once been the study of the mind had become the study of observable behavior.
B.F. Skinner , Another famous behaviorist, supported Watson's vision by advancing the idea that human behavior could be explained by reinforcement and punishment (observable factors, of the environment around us) without the need to even consider inner mental processes.
Other later behaviorists adopted a more balanced view, accepting the study of both concealed and observable behaviors. These behaviorists are known as cognitive behaviorists.
Watson's need for greater objectivity helped psychology to become a science instead of remaining a Branch of philosophy . Many of the Theories of learning Used by today's psychologists, were born from the behavioral school of thought and are frequently used in behavior modification and in the treatment of some mental disorders.
However, Watson's strict behaviorist viewpoint was no greater than the structuralist and functionalist emphasis on mental life. Undoubtedly,"many aspects of the human experience (thought, intrinsic motivation , Creativity) are outside the strict behaviorist definition of what psychology is"(Walters, 2002, p.29).
These aspects should also be studied to understand the mind of the individual in a more complete way. This was one of the key arguments of another of the emerging schools of thought known as the Gestalt psychology .
The psychology of the Gestalt
The word"Gestalt"means"form, pattern or all." Gestalt psychologists believed that psychology should study the Human experience as a whole , Not in terms of separate elements as intended by the structuralists.
His slogan,"the whole is more than the sum of the parts,"conveyed the idea that meaning is often lost when psychological events are separated; Only when these pieces are analyzed together and the whole pattern is visible can we find a true meaning in our experiences.
For example, imagine separating the words you are reading into letters and place them on the page however you want. You would not be able to discern anything with meaning. Only when the letters are combined appropriately to form words and these are structured in phrases can you draw meaning from them. The"everything"then becomes something different, something greater than the sum of its parts.
Gestalt psychologists, such as Max Wertheimer , Extensively investigated various aspects of cognition, including perception, problem solving, and thinking.
Additionally, his insistence on studying individuals and experiences as a whole is still retained in today's psychology. Their work also gave rise to the emergence of a form of psychotherapy Widely practiced by modern psychologists.
Humanistic psychology
With the emergence of the previously mentioned schools of thought, psychology gradually took shape. However, not everyone was satisfied with the way things were progressing.
Among these people were humanistic psychologists, such as Carl Rogers , Who were not comfortable with the vision so deterministic that had two major forces of psychology: psychoanalysis and behaviorism.
Determinism is the idea that our actions are controlled by forces that are beyond our control. For psychoanalysts, these forces are unconscious; For behaviorists, exist in the environment that surrounds us.
Humanistic psychologists, for example Abraham Maslow , See humans as free agents able to control their own lives, making their own decisions, setting goals and working to achieve them. Humanism holds a positive view of human nature, emphasizing that humans are inherently good.
A unique form of therapy also emerged from this school of thought, with an emphasis on helping people to reach their full potential. This is a big difference from psychoanalysis, which focused only on reducing maladaptive behaviors.